Research and development of citizen science water resource monitoring tools within the CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation.

GroundTruth, in partnership with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), led a research and development project concerning real-time natural resource monitoring and decision-support systems as per the CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation. The CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation seeks to harness digital technologies for timely decision-making across food, land and water systems.

Within this larger project, GroundTruth engaged in research and development regarding citizen science water resource monitoring, with a particular focus on the Environmental Champions (Enviro-Champs) initiative, the mini stream assessment scoring system (miniSASS), water clarity tubes, and smartphones.

This intensive research and development took place over nearly three years and resulted in multiple published outputs, including datasets, numerous publications, blogs, the miniSASS app, a newly launched and refurbished miniSASS website, a custom digital data collection tool for the Enviro-Champs, and a short video documentary.

The video documentary summarising the core of the project can be found here:

Video documentary (12 September 2024), “Citizen science for action on water quality in southern Africa”: https://youtu.be/MC8L_ov5WLk

Here is a summary of the outputs:

1. The first of the publications was a technical report on the development of the miniSASS app, a smartphone tool with a built-in machine-learning algorithm for the automatic, real-time identification of macroinvertebrates. This publication can be found here:

Pattinson, N.B., Koen, R.C.J., and Koen, F.J. 2022. Artificial intelligence-based biomonitoring of water quality. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation. 32p. Available at https://hdl.handle.net/10568/128025

Abstract

The miniSASS river survey technique was developed as a citizen science tool for monitoring the health of river systems and reflecting the water quality through assessing macroinvertebrates communities. miniSASS samples the macroinvertebrate community in a river reach and compares the community present to the expected community under ideal natural conditions. The information garnered during a survey relies heavily on the accurate identification of macroinvertebrates by lows killed citizen scientists. This leaves a potential for errors in identification which may impact the accuracy of results and, ultimately, of the river health assessment. In response, we initiated the development of a smartphone application with built-in machine-learning algorithms for the automatic, real-time identification of macroinvertebrates. This report presents our data, methodology, and preliminary results from the automated identification algorithms.

2. The second publication from the project covered further detail on the research and development regarding miniSASS, including the development of the miniSASS app, upgrading the miniSASS website, and development of an online learning environment for miniSASS. This technical report can be found here:

Pattinson, N.B., Russell, C., Taylor, J., Dickens, C.W.S., Koen, R.C.J., Koen, F.J., and Graham, P.M. 2023. Digital innovation with miniSASS, a citizen science biomonitoring tool. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation. 31p. Available at https://hdl.handle.net/10568/134498

Abstract

The mini stream assessment scoring system (miniSASS) was developed as a citizen science biomonitoring tool for assessing the water quality and health of stream and river systems. A miniSASS survey involves sampling the aquatic macroinvertebrate community in a stream or river reach and using the known sensitivities and tolerances of the taxa present to infer information about the water quality and health of the stream or river. The quality of the outcomes of a miniSASS survey is dependent on good sampling technique and accurate identification of aquatic macroinvertebrates by low-skilled citizen scientists. As such, there is potential for errors in sampling and identification which may impact the accuracy of results. In response, we aimed to 1) develop a smartphone application (miniSASS mobile app with built-in machine learning (ML) algorithm for the automatic, real-time identification of aquatic macroinvertebrates) to assist in miniSASS surveys, 2) modernise and upgrade the miniSASS website to handle new data submissions (including photographs) and improve the user interface (UI), and 3) develop an online miniSASS training course. This report presents the methodology and preliminary results pertaining to these objectives.

Find the online training course for miniSASS, with rewards for participants using blockchain secured digital tokens, here: https://groundtruth.plutolmsapp.com/.

This course is linked to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Youth Agency Marketplace (YOMA) and was developed in partnership with Rhodes University, Water Research Commission (WRC) South Africa, and the Duzi-uMngeni Conservation Trust (DUCT).

3. The third publication concerned the development of a digital, interactive dichotomous classification key for miniSASS. This publication, led by North-West University PhD student Ruan Koen, funded through the CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation, can be found here:

Koen, R.C.J., Koen, F.J., Pattinson, N.B., Dickens, C.W.S., and Graham, P.M. 2023. Digitally improving the identification of aquatic macroinvertebrates for indices used in biomonitoring. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation. 10p. Available at https://hdl.handle.net/10568/138246

Abstract

This report provides an overview of the mini Stream Assessment Scoring System (miniSASS) and South African Scoring System Version 5 (SASS5) as biomonitoring techniques for assessing the ecological condition of streams and rivers based on the identification of aquatic macroinvertebrates. While miniSASS relies on minimally trained citizen scientists to identify macroinvertebrates at the Order-level, SASS5 utilizes expertly accredited practitioners for finer resolution, even up to the family-level. However, the reliance on citizen scientists for miniSASS identification introduces limitations in terms of precision, accuracy, and reliability. To address these limitations, ongoing developments within the CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation include the creation of a miniSASS smartphone application, an upgraded website, an interactive online course, and a machine-learning identification algorithm to assist with photo identification. Additionally, a revised dichotomous key has been developed to improve operator identification during miniSASS surveys. Furthermore, the potential for upscaling the machine-learning identification algorithm to assist in identifying the 91 family-level taxa used in SASS5 assessments has been explored. The outcomes of these developments and explorations presented in this paper aim to enhance the overall effectiveness and reliability of both the miniSASS and SASS5 techniques. By leveraging digital innovation and incorporating machine-learning technology, we anticipate the efficiency, accuracy, and accessibility of biomonitoring assessments will significantly improve, ultimately contributing to a better understanding and management of our aquatic ecosystems.

4. The fourth publication was on the Enviro-Champs initiative. The publication synthesised much of the collective knowledge of the community of practice surrounding the Enviro-Champs initiative for over a decade, collating a best practice framework for establishing and upscaling a technologically enhanced Enviro-Champs initiative. This technical report can be found here:

Pattinson, N.B., Taylor, J., Lepheana, A.T., Dickens, C.W.S., and Graham, P.M. 2023. The enviro-champs: Establishing a framework for a technologically upgraded environmental monitoring network at community scale. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation. 19p. Available at https://hdl.handle.net/10568/138440

Abstract

The Enviro-Champs initiative was developed as a community driven, citizen science initiative in Mpophomeni township in Kwa-Zulu Natal (KZN), South Africa. Over time, the scope of work done and data collected by the Enviro-Champs has expanded. There is now recognition both locally and globally that the Enviro-Champs initiative shows great promise for national and global upscaling. However, several areas within the initiative remain where it could be improved, especially technologically. GroundTruth, in conjunction with technical and funding support from CGIAR Research Initiative on Digital Innovation and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), engaged in a project which aimed to i) establish recruitment, training, and education tools to support establishment of a technologically integrated and upgraded Enviro-Champs initiative, ii) develop an outline for a training and education workshop for Enviro-Champs once they are hired, iii) improve data collection and reporting capacity and efficiency with a sustainable system (in collaboration with CGIAR and FormShare), and iv) pilot test technological improvements to the Enviro-Champs initiative within the Mpophomeni Enviro-Champs in conjunction with the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), and Umgeni Water. The overarching aim was to develop a technologically innovative and upgraded best-practice framework for the Enviro-Champs, from recruitment, through training and data collection, to data management and reporting. The primary outcome was to have a fully functional, digitally improved Enviro-Champs system in Mpophomeni, that could serve as a working template for upscaling the Enviro-Champs initiative elsewhere in Southern Africa or the world. This report reflects the process and outcomes of this project to date.

5. The fifth publication was a working paper within the prestigious and ongoing IWMI working paper series, covering smartphone-related innovations in citizen science water quality monitoring, especially in the context of developing countries such as those typifying most of Africa. The working paper can be found here:

Pattinson, N.B., Taylor, J., Dickens, C.W.S., and Graham, P.M. 2023. Digital innovation in citizen science to enhance water quality monitoring in developing countries. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation. 40p. (IWMI Working Paper 210). https://doi.org/10.5337/2024.201

Abstract

Freshwater systems are disproportionately adversely affected by the ongoing, global environmental crisis. The effective and efficient water resource conservation and management necessary to mitigate the crisis requires monitoring data, especially on water quality. This is recognized by Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, particularly indicator 6.3.2., which requires all UN member states to measure and report the ‘proportion of water bodies with good ambient water quality’. However, gathering sufficient data on water quality is reliant on data collection at spatial and temporal scales that are generally outside the capacity of institutions using conventional methods. Digital technologies, such as wireless sensor networks and remote sensing, have come to the fore as promising avenues to increase the scope of data collection and reporting. Citizen science (which goes by many names, e.g., participatory science or community-based monitoring) has also been earmarked as a powerful mechanism to improve monitoring. However, both avenues have drawbacks and limitations. The synergy between the strengths of modern technologies and citizen science presents an opportunity to use the best features of each to mitigate the shortcomings of the other. This paper briefly synthesizes recent research illustrating how smartphones, sometimes in conjunction with other sensors, present a nexus point method for citizen scientists to engage with and use sophisticated modern technology for water quality monitoring. This paper also presents a brief, non-exhaustive research synthesis of some examples of current technological upgrades or innovations regarding smartphones in citizen science water quality monitoring in developing countries and how these can assist in objective, comprehensive, and improved data collection, management and reporting. While digital innovations are being rapidly developed worldwide, there remains a paucity of scientific and socioeconomic validation of their suitability and usefulness within citizen science. This perhaps contributes to the fact that the uptake and upscaling of smartphone-assisted citizen science continues to underperform compared to its potential within water resource management and SDG reporting. Ultimately, we recommend that more rigorous scientific research efforts be dedicated to exploring the suitability of digital innovations in citizen science in the context of developing countries and SDG reporting.

6. The sixth publication was a scientific paper published in the international, peer-reviewed journal Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management. The article discusses research led by GroundTruth, in partnership with other key organizations such as the Duzi-uMngeni Conservation Trust (DUCT), into the use of water clarity tubes for monitoring water clarity and total suspended solids in river water and wastewater treatment works effluent in southern Africa. The paper can be accessed, open-access, here:

Graham, P.M., Pattinson, N.B., Lepheana, A.T., and Taylor, J. (2024). Clarity tubes as effective citizen science tools for monitoring wastewater treatment works and rivers. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 20(5), 1463-1472. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4937

Abstract

Improved freshwater resource management requires the implementation of widespread, effective, and timely water quality monitoring. Conventional monitoring methods are often inhibited by financial, infrastructural, and human capacity limitations, especially in developing regions. This study aimed to validate the citizen-scientist-operated transparency or clarity tube (hereafter “clarity tube”) for measuring water clarity as a proxy for total suspended solids (TSS) concentration, a critical quality metric in river systems and wastewater treatment works (WWTW) effluent in Southern Africa. Clarity tubes provided a relatively accurate and precise proxy for TSS in riverine lotic systems and WWTW effluent, revealing significant inverse log-linear relationships between clarity and TSS with r2 = 0.715 and 0.503, respectively. We demonstrate that clarity-derived estimates of TSS concentration (TSScde) can be used to estimate WWTW compliance with WWTW effluent TSS concentration regulations. The measurements can then be used to engage with WWTW management, potentially affecting WWTW performance. Overall, these findings demonstrate the usefulness of clarity tubes as low-cost, accessible, and easy-to-use citizen science tools for high spatial and temporal resolution water quality monitoring, not only in rivers in Southern Africa but also in WWTW effluent for estimating compliance, with strong global relevance to the sustainable development goals (SDGs).

7. The seventh publication concerned digital innovation within the Mpophomeni township Enviro-Champs initiative in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The publication GroundTruth’s research and development, along with various partners, including uMngeni-uThukela Water and the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), to bring technological upgrades to the data collection, processing, and visualisation processes of the Enviro-Champs initiative. The technical report can be found here:

Pattinson, N.B., Maharaj, U., Singh, K., Taylor, J., Lepheana, A.T., Dickens, C.W.S., and Graham, P.M. 2024. Digitally enhanced community-based environmental monitoring: Technologically upgrading the Enviro-Champs initiative. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation. 16p. Available at https://hdl.handle.net/10568/151937

Abstract

Conventional water resource governance and monitoring systems, while essential, are falling short of requirements to address urgent challenges and achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Moreover, the global north and wealthy regions are typically overrepresented in science, while marginalised, disaffected and indigenous regions in developing countries, especially in the global south, remain underrepresented. Addressing these challenges requires diversified involvement that includes local community members who are disproportionately impacted by environmental and social problems.

In the late 2000s, the non-profit Duzi-uMngeni Conservation Trust (DUCT) helped establish the Enviro-Champs, a community-based citizen science-driven monitoring initiative, in the Mpophomeni and Shiyabizali townships in Kwa-Zulu Natal (KZN), South Africa. The initiative offers a range of impressive and important social contributions, such as communicating flood risks across the community and monitoring of wastewater effluents, but knowledge co-creation and data collection via citizen science has always been at its core. Despite gradual technological progress within the data capture and reporting framework of the initiative, there has been a need for a digitally integrated system to assist with data capture, submission, collation, visualization, reporting, and feedback. Collaborating within the CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation, we aimed to address these issues to increase the power, impact, and scalability of the Enviro-Champs initiative.

Initially, we consolidated the knowledge from the community of practice that had formed around the Enviro-Champs and similar initiatives to synthesise a recruitment and training framework for the Enviro-Champs initiative. We then customised a version of the Open Data Kit (ODK) mobile data collection app, called ODK Collect, which submits data to Formshare1 , a CGIAR-based cloud-hosting infrastructure.

Here, we report on piloting the use of this system of ODK Collect for citizen science data collection, with Formshare for cloud-based data collation and storage, within the Mpophomeni Enviro-Champs initiative. As part of this pilot, we aimed to use an Excel macro-coded data cleaning process coupled with Microsoft Power BI2 dashboard for real-time, semi-automated data handling and visualisation. The pilot was undertaken in collaboration with the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) and uMngeni-uThukela Water (UUW) who are the managing authorities of the Mpophomeni Enviro-Champs initiative. This pilot showcases the process of codeveloping a digitally integrated system of data collection, curation, and reporting for the Enviro-Champs initiative, as a model method to co-develop and establish a community-based, collaborative, coordinated, and technologically integrated citizen science driven monitoring program in a rural and previously disadvantaged area.

8. The eighth and final publication from this project was a technical report on research into the capabilities, accuracy, and suitability of various citizen science smartphone-based water quality monitoring tools for use in the context of developing countries. The technical report can be found here:

Pattinson, N.B., Dickens, C.W.S., Taylor, J., and Graham, P.M. 2024. Smartphones for citizen science water quality monitoring in developing regions. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation. 22p. Available at https://hdl.handle.net/10568/151938

Abstract

Among many other efforts, high spatial and temporal resolution water quality monitoring data are required to help mitigating the ongoing global freshwater crisis. Citizen science is said to have a high potential to contribute valuable water quality monitoring data, while at the same time offering a range of qualitative benefits such as generation of a social fabric, environmental education, and improved relationships between citizenry and authorities. The potential of citizen science is elevated by integration with technology, especially smartphones, which allow for easy data capture and information sharing among a range of other powerful features.

As part of the CGIAR Initiative on Digital Innovation, we aimed to test some of the most prominent smartphone applications (apps) to investigate their scalability to developing regions for monitoring the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target 6.3.2 indicator water quality parameters or other key water quality metrics. We used southern Africa as a case study, since it characterises numerous key challenges to citizen science water quality monitoring using smartphones in developing regions. We evaluated five smartphone apps that are plug-and-play, assessing both their quantitative accuracy as well as their qualitative suitability to a southern African context. We found that the Hydrocolor and EyeOnWater apps showed theoretical promise but would not be useful for typical citizen science monitoring of streams, river, and dams from the banks of those water bodies given their requirement for deep water. The MQuant® StripScan App was not useful given that the reference cards required to use the app could not be sourced and that the app did not function to read the Mquant® nitrate test strips. The Nutrient App showed some promise but has ceased being supported, illustrating the critical importance of designing and developing tools with sustainable financing and maintenance in mind (as well as the need for funders to support key tools so they remain freely accessible) so that the great efforts that go into research and development are not ultimately wasted. The Aquality app was fairly user friendly, intuitive, and accessible for free via the Play Store and the Apple App Store. The development and support team were helpful and responsive, with ongoing research and development regarding the app showing good potential for upscaled functionality and implementation in the future. However, we found that there were significant qualitative and quantitative issues with the app that should be investigated further and addressed to ensure the app is suitable for global use, especially in the context of developing regions. These included that i) the material requirements for the app (i.e., a reference card mailed directly from Deltares in the Netherlands and Hach© nitrate test strips) were difficult to source in South Africa (which is likely to be the case in many other countries), ii) each test carried a significant financial cost (USD 2 – 5 per test), and iii) the guidelines of the app, especially concerning the appropriate lighting requirements, left considerable room for novice user error or lack of standardisation. Concerns over the standardisation and accuracy of the data were supported by the fact that we found little to no correlation between the estimated nitrate concentrations in surface water samples calculated by the app compared to accredited laboratory measurements of the same water samples.

Overall, we suggest that though our data were limited, they provide evidence that the data generated by real citizen scientists using such app around the world need to be carefully validated before they can be trusted. The reality is that doubt over standardisation and validity of results could prove a serious barrier to use of the data for management and policy interventions. More broadly, we identified a need for digital innovations within citizen science to remain human-centric and not become extractive, treating citizen scientists simply as data collection units. The massive potential for a nexus between digital innovation and citizen science will only be realised if we specifically cater towards the human part of the equation and if researchers and developers remain mindful of technicist assumptions about the utility, understandability, and validity of innovative technologies in different contexts.

Further publications as blogs, popular articles, and datasets for this project can be found here:

Graham, P. M., Pattinson, N. B., Russell, C., and Taylor, J. 2024. The value of citizen science for a just and sustainable water future. South African Journal of Science, 120(9/10), Art. #19185. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2024/19185

IWMI. Digital innovation powers community-powered action on water quality in southern Africa. Eds. S. Storr & N.B. Pattinson, 12 September 2024. IWMI Blog. Available at https://www.cgiar.org/news-events/news/digital-innovation-powers-community-powered-action-on-water-quality-in-southern-africa/

IWMI. The simple tool bringing clarity to South African water systems. Eds. S. Storr & N.B. Pattinson, 02 July 2024. IWMI Blog. Available at https://www.cgiar.org/news-events/news/how-drones-are-used-to-model-river-flows-on-a-regional-scale/

Graham, P.M., Pattinson, N.B., and Taylor, J. Sewage leaks put South Africa’s freshwater at risk: how citizen scientists are helping clean up. 14 March 2024. The Conversation Africa. https://theconversation.com/sewage-leaks-put-south-africas-freshwater-at-risk-how-citizen-scientists-are-helping-clean-up-224299#:~:text=Involving%20the%20affected%20communities%20can,sewage%20from%20flooding%20into%20rivers

Garcia, A., Scheibenreif, M., and Keil, L. Heroes of environmental stewardship. Ed. N.B. Pattinson, 20 February 2024. IWMI Blog. Available at https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/blogs/heroes-of-environmental-stewardship/

Perera, T. Join the citizen science movement for healthy rivers. Ed. N.B. Pattinson, 29 January 2024. IWMI Blog. Available at https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/news/join-the-citizen-science-movement-for-healthy-rivers/#:~:text=The%20miniSASS%20app%20is%20an,%2DWest%20University%20(NWU)

Taylor, J., Pattinson, N.B., and Graham, P.M. A Perspective of Water Quality in South Africa. 10 January 2024. YEMAYA: Newsletter of the WWQA. Available at https://sway.cloud.microsoft/oa0SiYX2iDV7OBHN?ref=LinkedIn&loc=play

Fricker, T. and Ngcobo, B. Youth on the frontlines protecting South Africa’s environment. 01 February 2023. UNICEF Stories. Available at https://www.unicef.org/southafrica/stories/youth-frontlines-protecting-south-africas-environment

Koen, R.C.J., Koen, F.J.K. 2023. Aquatic macroinvertebrate image dataset. Harvard Dataverse, V3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/1QQPJ5

Kartoza. 2024. Accessing the miniSASS 3rd Party API. Available at https://kartoza.github.io/miniSASS/developer/3rd-party-api-access/

To view the videos on miniSASS and the Enviro-Champs that were developed as part of this project, visit: https://www.youtube.com/@groundtruthcitizenscience/videos or https://minisass.org/